PLANTS, PEOPLE, PLANET

Crop wild relatives (CWRs) are wild plant species genetically related to cultivated crops and represent vital reservoirs of genetic diversity for food security and agricultural resilience. Zimbabwe, with its five floristic regions, hosts substantial plant biodiversity, yet a comprehensive national inventory of its CWRs has been lacking. This study presents a desk-based assessment to develop a national checklist of Zimbabwean CWRs, applying a conceptual framework that evaluates edible CWRs in terms of taxonomic composition, use categories, biogeographic status, extinction risk, breeding potential, and vernacular nomenclature. An integrated approach combining floristic, ecological, and ethnobotanical data was employed to contextualize their utility in food systems and conservation. Findings reveal that Zimbabwe harbors over 2,700 CWR taxa across more than 100 plant families and nearly 400 genera, related to approximately 260 cultivated crops. Documented uses span food, fodder, medicine, ornamental, and industrial applications, with edible uses comprising nearly 40% of taxa with recorded utility. Edible CWRs span 53 families, predominantly Orchidaceae, Poaceae, Fabaceae, Convolvulaceae, Lamiaceae, and Euphorbiaceae, and serve diverse dietary roles including vegetables, fruits, spices, herbs, cereals, oils, and beverages. Around 90% CWR are native, and one-third are regionally endemic, with the Eastern Highlands region identified as a biodiversity hotspot. Despite their significance, only 30% of edible CWRs have been assessed for extinction risk, and just 0.2% have documented confirmed or potential traits for crop improvement. Vernacular names were recorded in six local languages for 26% of edible taxa, highlighting significant cultural knowledge and integration into local food systems. This study underscores the underutilized potential of edible CWRs in plant breeding and conservation planning. Their diversity, cultural embeddedness, and adaptive traits present significant opportunities for enhancing food security and advancing sustainable development in Zimbabwe and beyond. Strategic conservation and utilization of these genetic resources are urgently needed.

South American coca (Erythroxylum coca and E. novogranatense) has been a key-stone crop for many Andean and Amazonian communities for at least 8,000 years. However, over the last half century, global demand for cocaine has placed this plant in the centre of armed conflict, deforestation, and explosive growth of illegal economies. While national and international agencies progress from a war on drugs policy model towards locally appropriate, data-informed strategies to tackle coca plantations, monitoring their expansion and composition remains essential. The principal means to identify coca plants is leaf morphology, yet the extent to which it is reflected in taxonomy is uncertain. Here, we analyse the consistency of the current naming system of coca and its four closest wild relatives (the coca clade), using morphometrics, phylogenomics, and population genomics. We include the name-bearing type specimens of cocas closest wild relatives E. gracilipes and E. cataractarum. Morphometrics of 342 digitized herbarium specimens show that leaf shape and size fail to reliably discriminate between species and varieties. However, the rounder and more obovate leaves of certain coca varieties could be associated with domestication syndrome of this crop. Our phylogenomic data indicate gene flow involving monophyletic clades of E. gracilipes and the E. coca clade. These results further clarify the evolution of coca and support a taxonomic framework wherein E. gracilipes is retained as a single species. Our findings have implications for the development of cost-effective genotyping methods to effectively discriminate varieties of cultural significance from high-yielding cultivars fuelling the lucrative cocaine market.

The abundance and diversity of insect pollinators around the world is declining and habitat loss is a leading cause. Turfgrass lawns cover a vast area in North America and provide a great opportunity for habitat restoration to native wildflowers by the general public. Efforts to encourage the public to replace lawns with wildflowers could be improved by a better understanding of the thoughts and opinions of the public about lawns. We conducted a nationwide online survey to understand what barriers are most important in preventing people from converting a 6 x 6 ft portion of turfgrass lawn to native wildflowers. We also collected data on a variety of demographic factors to see if those influence survey responses. Over 3200 people took survey across the US. We found that ‘Maintenance time’ and ‘Not knowing what to do’ were the most important barriers to creating wildflower habitat. Age was the most important demographic factor impacting results with young people significantly more likely to select multiple barriers in the survey. For example, people aged 18-34 were 4.3 times more likely to indicate ‘Maintenance cost’ would prevent them from creating a wildflower plot than those age 65 or older. Those who had already created a wildflower plot, or those who were members in a native plant or pollinator organization were less likely to select barriers across the board, except for external barriers related to homeowners associations, neighbors, and local governments. This shows that these are persistent concerns even for those that are otherwise keen to create wildflower habitat. Our results suggest that outreach promoting pollinator-friendly native plant gardens should focus on clear and simple methods, small plots that will not take too much time and less likely to provoke neighbors or authority figures.View Full Text

- In many taxa the expected number of species is still uncertain, hampering conservation, especially in the diverse tropical regions of Earth. Here we use the plant family Bromeliaceae as a model to explore the history and future of species discovery from the Neotropics global biodiversity hotspot. - We use a newly curated complete list of described species together with species geographic distributions and information on taxonomic authors to explore patterns of past species description. Furthermore, we use logistic models to estimate the expected number of species in the family, the subfamilies, the largest genera and the relationship with geographic range. - In the past species discovery was dominated by researchers from Europe (mid-18th to mid-20th century), then researchers from the USA (mid to end of 20 century) and finally researchers from Latin America (21st century). The average number of species described per year increased from 0.6 between 1750 and 1800 to 33.8 between 2001 and 2025. Furthermore, description shifted from widespread species to species with smaller ranges, mostly from Brazil and the Andes from Bolivia to Mexico. We project the expected number of Bromeliaceae species at 6,658 to 7,498, leaving the current number of described species only at 55 to 49%. - Our results illustrate changes in the history of species description in the last centuries, confirm the progression from large range to smaller range species as the taxonomic treatment of the groups progressed, and illustrates Brazil, Mexico and the Andean region as hotspots for future species description.

AimEffective implementation of the Global Biodiversity Framework and Global Strategy for Plant Conservation depends on accurate species distribution data. Current vascular plant distribution data, while crucial for understanding terrestrial ecosystems, is often sparse and biased and requires significant expansion. This study developed a scalable approach to prioritize areas for plant occurrence data acquisition, adaptable to national priorities and providing a framework for botanical institutions to coordinate efforts and allocate resources. LocationGlobal. MethodsUsing a Technique for Order Preference by Similarity to Ideal Solution (TOPSIS) analysis, we prioritized areas based on: (a) ecosystem service value; (b) floristic value threatened by climate or land-use change; and (c) uncertainty in species richness estimates, stratified by biome and region. Regional prioritization maps for Africa & Madagascar; East, South and Southeast Asia; Siberia and the Russian Far East; South America; and North & Central America were reviewed by botanical experts for validation. Scalability was assessed by comparing regional and global analyses. ResultsData-driven priority maps, divided into tree-dominated and grassland/deforested areas, largely received expert support. High similarity between global and regional maps demonstrated scalability. Main conclusionsOur approach provides a framework for supporting national implementation of the Global Biodiversity Framework. Variables and their weights can be tailored to national or local needs. The methods flexibility and adaptability extend to other taxonomic groups and objectives, such as protected area selection By prioritizing data acquisition, whether field-based or digital, this research promotes the efficient use of resources. A key advantage of this approach is its capacity to systematically translate expert opinion into explicit and quantitative criteria, which in turn facilitates clear communication with policymakers and funders.

PremiseHerbarium collections offer an unparalleled archive of plant biodiversity, but their use for species identification through spectral data remains constrained by uncertain effects of preservation histories. This study assesses whether barium specimens can reliably predict species based on its leaf reflectance spectrum, despite variations in age, geographic origin, or conservation method under limited sample size conditions. MethodsWe scanned herbarium specimens of different ages and geographic distribution of 14 species of the pantropical Annonaceae. In addition, we used a second dataset of 9 species where some specimens were conserved in alcohol prior to drying and some not. We used five supervised classification models frequently used for high-dimensional data such as spectroscopy. ResultsAll models achieved high accuracy (>80%) when trained on multiple specimens per species. However, when using only one specimen per species, accuracy varied substantially depending on the taxon. DiscussionOur findings demonstrate that herbarium specimens often retain a strong taxonomic signal in their spectra, however, inter-individual variability affects accuracy in some taxa. These findings confirm the usefulness of herbarium spectroscopy as a non-destructive tool for species identification and offer a promising avenue for digitizing historical biodiversity data into high-dimensional trait space.

Breadfruit (Artocarpus altilis (Parkinson) Fosberg) is a culturally and nutritionally significant perennial crop of the Pacific Islands. National Tropical Botanical Gardens Kahanu Garden (Maui, Hawai i) maintains a breadfruit collection representing more than 150 traditional varieties, some unique or irreplaceable and requiring safety duplication to safeguard genetic diversity. However, aging trees exhibit variable vigor, potentially limiting clonal propagation outcomes. We assessed air layering as a strategy for conservation duplication, conducting 163 air-layer attempts across 26 priority accessions. We evaluated the influence of tree vigor, age, and branch characteristics on rooting success and survival to out-planting. Overall, 17% successfully rooted and 75% of those survived to out-planting, resulting in successful duplication of 16 of 26 at-risk accessions. Rooting success differed among vigor classes (33% for high-vigor trees; 11-16% for normal and feeble trees) and increased modestly with source tree age, while survival to out-planting declined with increasing age. Branch length and fruiting season were not associated with outcomes. These findings indicate that air layering can support conservation propagation in living collections, but success is strongly influenced by source tree age and condition. Initiating safety duplication while trees are physiologically robust is likely to improve long-term conservation outcomes.

Agricultural expansion is one of the greatest threats to global biodiversity. At the same time, many wildlife species survive or even thrive in agricultural landscapes that retain patches of natural ecosystems. This is especially true for tropical oil palm (Elaeis guineensis, Jacq.) plantations that have both replaced tropical forest and other species-rich ecosystems, but as perennial crops can also function as wildlife habitat, especially if fragments of natural ecosystems are retained. There is an urgent need to understand how to manage and monitor wildlife in these fragmented oil palm landscapes. Still, the lack of large, quantitative datasets on species abundance impedes learning. We piloted a novel citizen science-based biodiversity monitoring system in Austindo Nusantara Jayas seven Indonesian oil palm estates, across different biogeographical regions, over a 5-year period. The company-wide monitoring system called PENDAKI, the Indonesian acronym for Care for Biodiversity, is the first of its kind in the palm oil industry. Here we demonstrate that such unstructured and opportunistic data collected mainly by lay people can result in valuable information on temporal and spatial changes in species occupancy. Between September 2019 and June 2024, PENDAKI has resulted in 148,286 wildlife observations, that included 699 reliably identified faunal and 186 floral species, with contributions from 3,950 employee contributors. We estimate species-specific occupancy rates using Bayesian occupancy modeling, ideally suited for opportunistic data where survey effort is unknown. We show that these occupancy data can reliably show temporal and spatial changes in the distribution of iconic wildlife such as orangutans (Pongo pygmaeus). We combined data from reliably identified species with at least 50 records to create the "Living Plantation Index", an estate-specific annual index of wildlife diversity based on occupancy estimates. We conclude that citizen science-based biodiversity monitoring works remarkably well in oil palm plantations because of the large number of people typically working there. In the process we discovered the emergence of co-benefits such as increasing environmental stewardship awareness across the workforce, raising the profile of the conservation department within the company. We also noted the benefits in terms of suitable data to meet regulatory and voluntary disclosure requirements.

Understanding crop genetic diversity is essential for conservation and breeding, yet farmer-maintained germplasm remains largely underrepresented in genomic studies. Theobroma cacao L. has a complex domestication history and extensive global diversity, and cacao currently cultivated in Central America, particularly in Costa Rica, has been understudied compared to South American and Mexican cultivars despite cultural and historical importance. In this study, we investigate the genetic diversity of cacao from farmer-managed systems across Costa Rica to search for Criollo germplasm and identify and characterize any unique local genetic groups. Ninety-four trees were sampled from 17 farms across four regions of the country and sequenced using whole genome resequencing. Farmer materials were analyzed alongside 166 previously characterized reference accessions representing major cacao genetic groups. Population structure analyses, phylogenetic reconstruction, and network approaches revealed that Costa Rican cacao encompasses multiple known genetic groups, including Criollo-derived lineages, while also harboring locally distinct diversity not fully represented in current global reference collections. Analyses revealed close kinship between many accessions with no clear geographic patterns corresponding to the observed population differentiation, reflecting the effects of farmers in creating dominant patterns of gene flow through seed-saving, clonal propagation, and sharing genotypes among farms. Heterozygosity levels varied substantially among individuals, consistent with a mixture of highly inbred Criollo trees and more heterozygous, admixed genotypes. We find that farmer-managed cacao systems are reservoirs of genetic diversity, including possibly rare or historically important lineages, underscoring the value of these farming systems for effective conservation and management of genomic resources for cacao resilience and improvement.

Orchids are one of the most diverse plant families and are renowned for their highly specialised interactions with pollinators. Despite growing evidence of orchid population decline, pollinator decline and rising concerns for orchid reproductive success, long-term changes remain poorly understood. To address this gap, we analysed changes in pollinarium removal, as a proxy for pollination success, in herbarium specimens of three species-rich orchid genera (Disa, Oncidium and Ophrys) hosted at the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, which has a rich and diverse orchid collection spanning the past two centuries. The selected genera occur in different major regions (subtropical and tropical Africa, predominantly temperate Europe, and tropical America, respectively). Our analysis reveals that pollinarium removal declined significantly in Disa and Oncidium, particularly among species with deceptive strategies or specialised pollination mechanisms. In contrast, Ophrys showed a significant increase, driven by Apidae-pollinated species, whereas pollinarium removal for Andrenidae-pollinated species declined over time. These contrasting findings reflect the role of orchid identity, pollinator availability and pollination strategy in shaping reproductive success under anthropogenic change. Overall, this study demonstrates the power of herbarium specimens to reveal long-term ecological changes, providing unique insights into the response of specific plant-pollinator interactions to increasing anthropogenic pressure.

1. Tree planting is crucial for reversing deforestation and meeting net zero targets, requiring a reliable supply of high-quality seeds. Efficient use of limited native seeds can be promoted by sorting methods, but traditional techniques commonly used for agricultural species are often unsuitable for tree seeds due to their high trait variability. 2. Here, we explored the potential of combining image analysis with machine learning models to improve tree seed sorting outcomes. We selected five UK native tree species of interest for tree production and afforestation projects and applied machine learning XGBoost and Convolutional Neural Networks algorithms to predict seed germination using colour and X-ray images as well as features extracted from these images. 3. The machine learning models achieved good accuracy and F1-scores, but their specificity was limited, particularly when relying solely on colour images or related features. This poses a problem, as wild seeds are often scarce, and falsely classifying seeds that germinate as non-germinable would result in a waste of valuable resources. X-ray images and features were highly effective in identifying empty seeds but did not perform well when differentiating filled seeds into germinable and non-viable. Consequently, the models performed best for species with a high proportion of empty seeds. 4. For three of the five species, model performance varied significantly by mother tree, with some trees showing markedly poorer results. This aspect had not been previously investigated and raises concerns that biased seed sorting will disadvantage certain mother trees, leading to the loss of valuable genetic diversity and woodland resilience. Synthesis and applications: The performance of image-based machine learning models in predicting seed germination ultimately depended on whether most non-germinated seeds were empty, non-viable, or dormant. X-ray models showed strong performance in detecting empty seeds, but colour image models exhibited poor results due to the high variability in seed external features, the subtle differences between germinated and non-germinated seeds, and the variability among individual mother trees. Developing open, accessible training databases and more adaptable models is crucial for addressing these limitations and enable technologies to further support large-scale tree production.

Species in big angiosperm genera ([≥]500 species) are often considered to be less well-known than those in smaller genera. Consequently, species in big genera are likely underrepresented in conservation at all levels, from analyses to actions. However, emerging evidence indicates that species in larger genera tend to have smaller geographic ranges (a strong correlate of increased extinction risk). Here, we test the generality of this pattern by quantifying the relationships between plant taxon size, extinction risk and climatic zone on a global scale. We find that species in larger genera are more likely to have small ranges, less likely to have a global Red List assessment, and, when assessed, are more likely to be threatened. Persistent obstacles to improving conservation documentation of big genera include taxonomic uncertainty, data shortfalls and number of species involved, requiring continued collaboration between taxonomy and conservation to reduce this bias and enable effective conservation of the quarter of plant species that big genera encompass. Article Impact StatementSpecies in big angiosperm genera are under-studied, under-assessed, and their extinction risk has been underestimated.

The phenotypic changes that occurred during the domestication and diversification of grapevine are well known, particularly changes in seed morphology, but the functional causes and consequences behind these variations are poorly understood. Wild and domesticate grapes differ, among others, in the form of their pips: wild grapes produce roundish pips with short stalks and cultivated varieties have more elongated pips with longer stalks. Such variations of form are of first importance for archaeobotany since the pip form is, most often, the only remaining information in archaeological settings. This study aims to enlight archaeobotanical record and grapevine pip development by better understanding how size and shape (co)variates between pip and berry in both wild and domesticated Vitis vinifera. The covariation of berry size, number of seeds per berry ("piposity"), pip size and pip shape were explored on 49 grapevine accessions sampled among Euro-Mediterranean traditional cultivars and wild grapevines. We show that for wild grapevine, the higher the piposity, the bigger the berry and the more elongated the pip. For both wild and domesticated grapevine, the longer is the pip, the more it has a "domesticated" shape. Consequences for archaeobotanical studies are tested and discussed, and these covariations allowed the inference of berry dimensions from archaeological pips from a Southern France Roman site. This systematic exploration sheds light on new aspects of pip-berry relationship, in both size and shape, on grapevine eco-evo-devo changes during domestication, and invites to explore further the functional ecology of grapevine pip and berry and notably the impact of cultivation practices and human selection on grapevine morphology.

We describe Lychnodiscus bali (Sapindaceae) a new species to science, from the Bali Ngemba Forest Reserve of NW Region Cameroon, the last major remnant of cloud forest in the Bamenda Highlands of Cameroon, recently evidenced as a Tropical Important Plant Area (TIPA or IPA). Confined on current evidence to upper submontane forest, the species is threatened by expanding habitat clearance for farms and is assessed as Critically Endangered. A small tree, attaining 3 - 4 m height, it is the first new species to be added to this Guineo-Congolian tree genus in 50 years, the third recorded from Cameroon, and takes the number of species in the genus to eight. It has the highest known altitudinal range (1700 - 1950 m alt.), of any species of the genus. Previously identified as Lychnodiscus grandifolius, the new species differs in the shorter length of the distal leaflets (12 - 18 cm vs 22 - 39 cm long), in the abaxial surface lacking glands (vs glands flat and conspicuous), tertiary nerves hairy (vs glabrous), flowers at anthesis 8 - 11 mm long (vs 5 - 7 mm long). Lychnodiscus bali is described, illustrated and its extinction risk assessment as Critically Endangered is presented. We discuss its discovery in the context of other recently discovered and highly threatened or even extinct plant species in the Cameroon Highlands, and the importance of their conservation. We present an updated key to the identification of the species of the genus,and discuss its classification in the context of recent molecular phylogenomic studies. Previously placed in Cupanieae by Radlkofer, the authors contend that Lychnodiscus should now be placed in the reconstituted Nepheliaeae in the revised 2021 intrafamilial classification of Buerki et al., probably close to the genera Aporrhiza and Laccodiscus. However, until the genus is included in molecular studies this cannot be confirmed and its sister relationship remains speculative.

In the face of accelerating biodiversity loss, phylogenetically informed approaches offer critical insights for conservation planning from an evolutionary perspective. The EDGE (Evolutionarily Distinct and Globally Endangered) metric combines phylogenetic singularity with extinction risk to identify taxa that represent unique evolutionary history under threat. In this study, we focus on the global conservation relevance of angiosperms native to a regional biodiversity hotspot, the Iberian Peninsula. Our aim was to identify areas with a high concentration of EDGE species and to evaluate how effectively the current protected area network encompasses them. Our findings reveal that threatened evolutionary history is primarily concentrated in mountainous and coastal regions. While several EDGE zones --areas containing unique and endangered evolutionary lineages-- overlap with existing protected areas, particularly in mountains, others harbouring few but evolutionarily unique and highly threatened taxa remain largely unprotected. This study highlights the value of applying global conservation metrics such as EDGE at regional scales. Our results provide a foundation for integrating evolutionary history into conservation prioritization in the Iberian Peninsula and offer a replicable framework for implementing the EDGE approach in other biodiversity-rich regions. Impact statementIn the Iberian Peninsula, there are 22 EDGE zones that account for over 90% of angiosperm threatened evolutionary history.

O_LIThe ability to reproduce via multiple strategies is crucial for the invasion success of alien plant species. Here, we use Carpobrotus taxa (species and hybrids) to explore how trade-offs between and within these strategies may influence plant invasion dynamics. Native to South Africa, Carpobrotus plants are globally prominent in coastal ecosystems, reproducing by seed and clonally, and frequently hybridizing in both native and introduced regions. Three genetically distinct clusters were previously identified, with evidence of hybridization within and between these clusters in native and non-native ranges. C_LIO_LIWe collected fruit samples from populations representing the genetic clusters and their hybrids across native and non-native ranges (i.e., Europe, California, and New Zealand). These genetic clusters reflect the complex taxonomy of Carpobrotus, where species boundaries are unclear due to hybridization and morphological similarity. We then assessed seed set, seed mass, germination rates, and early growth under varying abiotic conditions alongside genetic estimates of clonality. C_LIO_LIGermination rates were influenced by temperature, moisture, and nutrient levels. Non-native populations demonstrated higher seed set, seed mass, and germination success compared to native populations, indicating a stronger investment in sexual reproduction. These populations also showed higher levels of clonality, shown by lower genotypic richness, suggesting that both reproductive strategies enhance invasive potential. C_LIO_LIHigh-clonality populations produced more seeds, demonstrating that the two reproductive strategies are not mutually exclusive. These results highlight the importance of multiple reproductive strategies for the establishment and spread of Carpobrotus taxa and provide insights into the mechanisms driving their global success. C_LI

Leaf shape is a key plant trait that varies enormously. The diversity of leaf shape, and the range of applications for data on this trait, requires frequent methodological developments so that researchers have an up-to-date toolkit with which to quantify leaf shape. We generated a dataset of 468 leaves produced by Ginkgo biloba, and 24 fossil leaves produced by evolutionary relatives of extant Ginkgo. We quantified the shape of each leaf by developing a geometric method based on elastic curves and a topological method based on persistent homology. Our geometric method indicates that shape variation in our modern sample is dominated by leaf size, furrow depth, and the angle of the two lobes at the base of the leaf that is also related to leaf width. Our topological method indicates that shape variation in our modern sample is dominated by leaf size and furrow depth. We have applied both methods to modern and fossil material: the methods are complementary, identifying similar primary patterns of variation, but also revealing some different aspects of morphological variation. Our topological approach distinguishes long-shoot leaves from short-shoot leaves and both methods indicate that leaf shape influences or is at least related to leaf area.

PremiseHerbarium specimens are increasingly used to extract morphological traits for ecological and evolutionary studies, yet the effects of tissue desiccation on trait measurements remain poorly understood. Here, we tested whether higher tissue water content leads to greater measurement changes after herborization (H1) and whether fresh trait values can be reliably predicted from herbarium measurements (H2). MethodsWe evaluated the reliability of herbarium-based measurements by comparing fresh and dried traits of leaves, flowers, fleshy fruits, and seeds across 262 individuals representing 133 Neotropical Myrtaceae species. Phylogenetic least square models and machine-learning regressions were used to test H1 and H2. ResultsLeaves and flowers generally shrank after herborization, fruits size metrics tended to increase, and seeds were largely unaffected. Water content was significantly associated with the magnitude of herborization effects in flowers and some leaf and seed traits. Fresh trait values were accurately predicted from herbarium measurements. Prediction errors were lowest for leaf traits, followed by fruits, flowers, and seeds. DiscussionThese results partially support H1 and support H2, indicating that herbarium specimens can be reliably used for trait analyses when organ-specific responses are considered, providing a practical framework to account for potential desiccation bias in functional trait research.

There is growing demand for data-driven frameworks to guide robust plant restoration strategies in response to anthropogenic disturbances. Several seed-sourcing (i.e., provenancing) strategies have been proposed, which balance the use of locally adapted genotypes against mixed genotypes to reduce mutation load or assistant migration to anticipate future climate scenarios. However, taxonomic uncertainty and lack of data characterizing genetic differentiation and gene flow have hindered provenancing strategies for many ecologically important non-model plant species--especially those in remote but vulnerable regions like the boreal forests of northern Canada. To guide provenancing strategies following anthropogenic disturbance in Canadas Northwest Territories, we characterize species-specific markers, population structure, and hybridization among three Calamagrostis species. Double digest RAD sequencing (ddRAD) resulted in 2,951 polymorphic loci across 27 individuals, which we used to design loci for genotyping in thousands by sequencing (GT-seq), a cost-efficient target loci approach resulting in 256 polymorphic loci across 93 individuals from wild C. canadensis, C. stricta ssp. inexpansa and C. purpurascens populations. To help define the scale of local populations for seed sourcing, we characterized geographic variation and population structure among 57 wild collection sites. We also assessed genetic relationships of wild C. canadensis to 69 individuals across eight commercially maintained populations used in restoration projects. We found that GT-seq yields similar genetic differentiation patterns as common neutral molecular marker approaches like ddRAD-seq. Specifically, we resolve morphologically misidentified individuals, identify genetic hybrids, and characterize the scale of genetic isolation-by-distance. Finally, we determined that three cultivar seed sources were genetically similar to southern wild populations, whereas five cultivars aligned with northern wild populations of C. canadensis in the Northwest Territories of Canada. Overall, our results highlight the benefits of cost-effective methods for genome-wide multi-locus genotyping to inform provenancing best-practices and support more effective and sustainable restoration efforts.

Enset (Ensete ventricosum, Musaceae) is an important economic crop from Ethiopia which accounts for 20% of the staple diet in Ethiopia today. However, its evolutionary history and spread is poorly understood. Archaeology could provide evidence of past use and contribute to our understanding of its early history, but so far, this has not transpired. Cultivated enset is clonally reproduced and seed production rarely occurs, therefore, looking for seed remains is futile and instead archaeobotanical research should focus on microfossils such as phytoliths. Phytoliths have been shown to be diagnostic for the presence of banana (Musa) and are expected to be similarly useful for identifying enset, but we need a better understanding of phytolith production and variability, and the extent to which this may be used to track domestication. The current study provides a fundamental baseline for the identification of Ensete phytoliths through the examination of phytoliths from leaves and other plant parts based on their size and shape. We consider the differentiation of phytoliths across a single plant, based on location in the leaf, the age of the leaf, and different organs of the plant. We also compare phytoliths in the Musaceae Family, and between the enset cultivar and wild samples. HIGHLIGHTSWe provide the first identification baseline to differentiate wild from domesticated enset by looking at variation across an individual enset plant and comparing these results to phytoliths from wild plants.